Griffith, B., Douglas, D. C., Walsh, N. E., Young, D. D., McCabe, T. R., Russell, D. E., White, R. G., Cameron, R. D., and Whitten, K. R., 2002, The Porcupine caribou herd: U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, v. 37; Biological Science Report USGS/BRD/BSR-2002-0001, 8 p.
Summary
Documentation of the natural range of variation in ecological, life history, and physiological characteristics of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) of the Porcupine caribou herd is a necessary base for detecting or predicting any potential effects of industrial development on the performance (e.g., distribution, demography, weight-gain of individuals) of the herd. To demonstrate an effect of development, post-development performance must differ from pre-development performance while accounting for any natural environmental trends. We had 2 working hypotheses for our investigations: 1) performance of the Porcupine caribou herd was associated with environmental patterns and habitat quality, and 2) access to important habitats was a key influence [...]
Summary
Documentation of the natural range of variation in ecological, life history, and physiological characteristics of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) of the Porcupine caribou herd is a necessary base for detecting or predicting any potential effects of industrial development on the performance (e.g., distribution, demography, weight-gain of individuals) of the herd. To demonstrate an effect of development, post-development performance must differ from pre-development performance while accounting for any natural environmental trends. We had 2 working hypotheses for our investigations: 1) performance of the Porcupine caribou herd was associated with environmental patterns and habitat quality, and 2) access to important habitats was a key influence on demography. We sought to document the range of natural variation in habitat conditions, herd size, demography (defined here as survival and reproduction), sources and magnitude of mortality, distribution, habitat use, and weight gain and loss; and to develop an understanding of the interactions among these characteristics of the herd. In addition, we investigated ways that we could use this background information, combined with auxiliary information from the adjacent Central Arctic caribou herd, to predict the direction and magnitude of any potential effects of industrial oil development in the 1002 Area of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge on Porcupine caribou herd calf survival on the herd’s calving grounds during June. Conclusions Our research has shown that the Porcupine caribou herd has significant annual variance in calving ground location (Fig. 3.13), faces annual variance in habitat conditions, selects areas with abundant high quality forage for calving, has increased survival of calves born in the concentrated calving areas, and shows a correlation between calf survival and both forage for females during peak lactation and predation risk in the annual calving grounds. All this implies that unrestricted access to annual calving grounds and concentrated calving areas maximized performance of lactating Porcupine caribou herd females and their calves. Because the Porcupine caribou herd has shown limited capacity for growth, free access to calving ground habitats may have compensated for less than optimal wintering habitats. Location of the concentrated calving areas during the past 19 years (1983-2001) is the best estimate of the area that has provided the highest quality calving habitat for females and their calves. Calf survival within the aggregate extent of concentrated calving areas has been higher than for calves born in areas never used as a concentrated calving area (83.8% vs.73.9%, respectively, 1983-1994, P = 0.026). Thus, the aggregate extent of all observed concentrated calving areas (Fig. 3.29) [see document] identifies the most valuable portion of the extent of calving in terms of calf survival during June. Our model prediction of a reduction in calf survival when calving grounds were displaced supports the concept that caribou made a critical "decision" in locating their annual calving grounds within the extent of calving, 1983-2001. It appears that actual calving ground location maximized June calf survival given the habitat conditions within the extent of calving for a given year. Weight-gain of calves provided further evidence for the importance of unrestricted location of annual calving grounds. The lack of a relationship between calf weight-gain and habitat use within annual calving grounds suggests that weight-gain was optimized by selection of the annual calving grounds, particularly during the first 3 weeks of life. Comparative growth of captive and wild Porcupine caribou herd calves (Parker et al. 1990) has shown that wild Porcupine caribou herd calves attain their maximum genetic potential for daily weight-gain during early- to mid-lactation (Gerhart et al. 1996). Therefore unrestricted selection of the annual calving ground may optimize weight-gain of calves for a year. The matching rank orders of NDVI_621 in the annual calving grounds and calf weights at 3 weeks of age, 1992-1994, support this concept. Unrestricted selection of annual calving grounds likely had significant implications for the parturient females as well as for their calves. The matching rank orders of 1) NDVI_621 within annual calving grounds, 2) parturient female weights, and 3) parturient female body condition scores during peak lactation, 1992-1994, suggest substantial contribution of the calving ground to parturient females’ nutritional status. Because fall weights of parturient females influence their probability of conception (Cameron et al. 1993, Cameron and ver Hoef 1994, Russell et al. 1998), calving ground habitats may contribute to parturition rates in the following year. Petroleum development will most likely result in restricting the location of concentrated calving areas, calving sites, and annual calving grounds. Expected effects that could be observed include reduced survival of calves during June, reduced weight and condition of parturient females and reduced weight of calves in late June, and, potentially, reduced weight and reduced probability of conception for parturient females in the fall. Whether these factors are additive to annual performance or are compensated on winter range will determine the net value of the annual calving grounds to herd performance. Determining the additive/compensatory nature of annual calving ground value, through field and simulation studies, should be the first research priority in future work Still unclear is the cause of the decline of the Porcupine caribou herd (Fig. 3.8) during a period when calving ground habitat conditions were favorable as a result of summer warming. Increased winter mortality was implicated by the herd decline because sub-adult and adult mortality on the calving ground has been inconsequential (Fancy et al. 1994, Walsh et al. 1995), and parturition rate and calf survival during June has remained high during the decline. Possible mechanisms for this suspected increase in off-calving-ground mortality include: 1) reduced longevity of adult females as a result of the cumulative energetic costs of persistent high parturition and calf survival during climate warming, 2) increased energetic costs of insect harassment as the climate has warmed, 3) reduced availability of winter forage or other adverse effects associated with increasing frequency of freeze-thaw events, 4) the herd exceeded forage carrying capacity of winter range, or 5) an increase in some form of predation (human or natural) on the winter range. Increased frequency of spring and fall icing events on non-calving habitats of the Porcupine caribou herd (Figs. 3.7a,b) supports the third hypothesis and may be implicated in the fifth hypothesis (increased predation mortality). Increased frequency of icing was not evident on the non-calving ranges of other Alaska barren-ground caribou herds that have not declined significantly during the 1990s (Central Arctic herd, Teshekpuk Lake herd, Western Arctic herd). Testing the remaining hypotheses will require substantial additional fieldwork. In summary, 4 research-based ecological arguments indicate that the Porcupine caribou herd may be particularly sensitive to development within the 1002 portion of the calving ground: Low productivity of the Porcupine caribou herd - The Porcupine caribou herd has had the lowest capacity for growth among Alaska barren-ground herds (Porcupine caribou herd = 4.9%, Central Arctic herd = 10.8%, Teshekpuk Lake herd = 13%, Western Arctic herd = 9.5%) and is the only barren-ground herd in Alaska known to be in decline throughout the 1990s. This low growth rate (Fig. 3.9) indicates that the Porcupine caribou herd has less capacity to accommodate anthropogenic, biological, and abiotic stresses than other Alaska barren-ground herds. Any absolute effect of development would be expected to have a larger relative effect on the Porcupine caribou herd than on the other herds. For example, an approximate 4.6% reduction in calf survival, all else held equal, would be enough to prevent Porcupine caribo herd growth under the best conditions observed to date (Walsh et al. 1995) or prevent recovery from the current decline. A similar reduction in calf survival, all else held equal, for other Alaska barren-ground herds, however, would not be sufficient to arrest their growth. Demonstrated shift of concentrated calving areas of the Central Arctic caribou herd away from petroluem development infrastructures - It is assumed that the Porcupine caribou herd caribou will avoid roads and pipelines during calving in a manner similar to the Central Arctic herd if development of the 1002 Area occurs. Avoidance of petroleum development infrastructure by parturient caribou during the first few weeks of the lives of calves is the most consistently observed behavioral response of caribou to development. Lack of high-quality alternate calving habitat - Calving areas in Canada and away from the Alaska coastal plain were used only when the Arctic Refuge coastal plain, including the 1002 Area, were unavailable due to late snowmelt. Diet quality on the Canadian portions of the calving ground was substantially lower than on the Arctic Refuge coastal plain and 1002 portions of the calving ground. When snow cover reduced access by females to the Arctic Refuge coastal plain and 1002 Area for calving, calf survival during June was 19% lower than when they could calve on the Arctic Refuge coastal plain and 1002 Area. Strong link between calf survival and free movement of females - The location of the annual calving grounds and concentrated calving areas was variable among years in response to variable habitat conditions and was often coincident with the 1002 Area. Empirical relationships between calf survival, forage available to females in the annual calving grounds, and predation risk derived from 17 years of ecological data predict that June calf survival for the Porcupine caribou herd will decline if the calving grounds are displaced, and that the effect will increase with displacement distance. This prediction (Fig. 3.28) [see document] is a function of displacement: 1) reducing access to the highest quality habitats for foraging and 2) increasing exposure to risk of mortality from predation during calving (first 3 weeks of June).
